Foreign bodies may cause acute airway obstruction. Other causes may include trauma, altered levels of consciousness, or infectious processes such as epiglottis and retropharyngeal abscess. Recognition of the obstruction is the first step. An appropriate verbal response to questions indicates a patent airway in the awake patient. If the patient is unconscious, determine if there is air movement with respiratory effort, snoring, gurgling, or stridorous noises indicative of obstruction. If foreign body obstruction is the problem, techniques such as the Heimlich maneuver or suctioning of debris from the airway may be needed.

Whatever the etiology, attempts to relieve airway obstruction have highest priority. In the trauma patient however, remember that the neck must be immobilized and stabilized with in-line traction during airway management to prevent possible spinal cord damage.

Correct airway management may be as simple as the basic chin lift or jaw thrust with head tilt maneuver. These techniques should usually be attempted first. The chin lift is better for the trauma situation as it does not hyperextend the neck. The rescuer’s fingers lift the jaw anteriorly from under the mandible or behind the lower incisors. The jaw thrust involves grasping the angles of the lower jaw and displacing the mandible forward. If the neck is stable, it may then be gently extended as needed until the airway opens. The oropharyngeal airway may be used to maintain airway patency after proper positioning is achieved. Placement usually involves a tongue blade to depress the tongue while the airway is placed posteriorly. Suctioning may follow if needed. Improper placement may displace the tongue posteriorly and worsen obstruction. The oropharyngeal airway will induce gagging and vomiting in the awake or semiconscious patient. The lubricated nasopharyngeal airway is the better choice here, as it is well tolerated by the awake patient but must be placed carefully to avoid trauma resulting in epistaxis.

After placement of the oral or nasal pharyngeal airway, check again for adequacy of ventilation. If needed, assist with positive pressure ventilation. This should be done with a source of high-flow oxygen attached to a bag-valve device consisting of a self-inflating bag, non-rebreathing valve, and no pressure release valve. This bag-valve device has standard 15 mm/22 mm fittings that allow it to be connected to a mask or an endotracheal tube. Experience and practice in maintaining proper mask fit will increase efficiency of air movement.

Preparing for endotracheal intubation

Endotracheal intubation is indicated to protect the patient from aspiration of gastric contents, for resuscitation in context with advanced cardiac life support protocol, or if the patient cannot be efficiently ventilated by the above methods. All intubation equipment should be prechecked and within reach before attempting to intubate the trachea, including laryngoscope with working light, endotracheal tube (generally females 7.0 mm i.d. and males 8.0 mm i.d. with stylet and cuff), and a functioning suction unit with rigid tip. These should be pre-checked and within reach before attempting to intubate the trachea. A stylet may or may not be necessary.

Endotracheal intubation

Proper positioning is essential. In-line manual cervical immobilization should be used in the cervical trauma patient. Otherwise, the head should be extended and the neck flexed. Several layers of folded towels may be placed under the occiput to achieve this position. The mouth is opened with the right hand. The left hand inserts the laryngoscope on the right side of the tongue, then sweeps the tongue up and to the left. The tip of the curved blade fits into the vallecula, while the straight blade fits under the epiglottis. Upward traction on the laryngoscope exposes the vocal cords and the endotracheal tube is inserted through the cords under direct vision. If available, an assistant may provide digital pressure over the cricoid cartilage to prevent aspiration of gastric contents during laryngoscopy.

Limit intubation attempts to 30 seconds and ventilate adequately between attempts. Optimize head position, blade type or size, and tube size before the next attempt at intubation.

Once the endotracheal tube has been inserted between the vocal cords, inflate the cuff, remove the styles, attach positive pressure ventilation source (BVM) to the endotracheal tube and check for bilateral breath sounds. Check for esophageal intubation by listening for gurgling over the epigastrium. If breath sounds are heard on one side, slowly withdraw the tube until bilateral breath sounds are present. Proper positioning is usually achieved with an endotracheal tube taped at the 21 cm mark at the teeth in females and 23 cm at the teeth in males. Don’t forget to obtain a CXR to check for tube placement.